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{{Infobox Country or territory|native_name = República del Perú|conventional_long_name = Republic of Peru|common_name = Peru|image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg|image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg|image_map = LocationPeru.svg|national motto =|national_anthem = National Anthem of Peru(Spanish language)"We are free, may we always be so"|official_languages = Spanish language1|demonym = Peruvian|capital = Lima|leader_title1 = [List of Presidents of Peru|leader_name1 = Alan García|leader_title2 = List of Prime Ministers of Peru|leader_name2 = Jorge Del Castillo|sovereignty_note = from [Spain [1821-->|percent_water = 8.80|population_estimate = 28,674,757 |population_estimate_rank = 41st|population_estimate_year = July 2007|population_census = 27,219,266|population_census_year = 2005 |population_density_km2 = 22|population_density_sq_mi = 57 |currency_code = PEN|time_zone = PET|utc_offset = -5|time_zone_DST = not observed|utc_offset_DST =|cctld = .pe, [Aymara language and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant.-->

Peru (, , ), officially the Republic of Peru (, ), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, and to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian. The Spanish Empire conquered the country in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving Independence of Peru in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.

Peru is a presidential system representative democracy republic divided into Administrative divisions of Peru. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a medium Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 50%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 28 million, is multiethnic society, including Indigenous Peoples in Peru, Europeans, Black people and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua and other Indigenous languages of the Americas. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 83. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 84. Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 86. The Spanish Empire gave the name legal status with the 1529 Francisco Pizarro#Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 87. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after Peruvian War of Independence.

History The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory has been dated to approximately 11,000 years Common Era.Tom Dillehay et al, "The first settlers", p. 20. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and 1800 BCE.Jonathan Haas et al, "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru", p. 1021. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Chavín culture, Paracas culture, Mochica Culture, Nazca culture, Huari Culture, and Chimú culture. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.Terence D'Altroy, The Incas, pp. 2–3. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and Terrace (agriculture); camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity (cultural anthropology) and redistribution (cultural anthropology) because these societies had no notion of market or money.Enrique Mayer, The articulated peasant, pp. 47–68.

, the "Lost City of the Incas"In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Inca Emperor Atahualpa and established Spanish rule. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias, vol. II, pp. 12–13. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian Mita (Inca) as its primary workforce.Peter Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, p. 181. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.Margarita Suárez, Desafíos transatlánticos, pp. 252–253. However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.Kenneth Andrien, Crisis and decline, pp. 200–202. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.Mark Burkholder, From impotence to authority, pp. 83–87. The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.Scarlett O'Phelan, Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru, p. 276.

in 1821.In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by South American wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence of Peru was achieved only after the military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.Timothy Anna, The fall of the royal government in Peru, pp. 237–238. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.Charles Walker, Smoldering ashes, pp. 124–125. National identity was forged during this period, as Simón Bolívar projects for a Congress of Panama foundered and a Peru-Bolivian Confederation proved ephemeral.Paul Gootenberg, Between silver and guano, p. 12. Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla due to increased state revenues from guano exports.Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, pp. 5–6. However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, p. 9.

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, losing the provinces of Arica Province and Tarapacá Region in the treaties of Treaty of Ancón and Treaty of Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.Ulrich Mücke, Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru, pp. 193–194. The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).Peter Klarén, Peru, pp. 262–276. The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.David Palmer, Peru: the authoritarian tradition, p. 93.

, a decisive battle during the War of the Pacific.In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaúnde Terry. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.George Philip, The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals, pp. 163–165. In 1975, Velasco was forcefully replaced as president by General Francisco Morales Bermúdez, who paralyzed reforms and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.Daniel Schydlowsky and Juan Julio Wicht, "Anatomy of an economic failure", pp. 106–107. During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and Internal conflict in Peru.Peter Klarén, Peru, pp. 406–407. Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover, however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial Peruvian general election, 2000.BBC News, Fujimori: Decline and fall. Retrieved on July 21, 2007. Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth; the current president is Alan García.The Economist, Peru. Retrieved on July 18, 2007.

Government , official residence of the President.Peru is a presidential system representative democracy republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and head of government; he or she is elected for five years and may not immediately be re-elected.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 112. The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 122. There is a unicameralism Congress with 120 members elected for a five-year term.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 90. Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.Constitución Política del Perú, Articles Nº 107–108. The judiciary is nominally independent,Constitución Política del Perú, Articles Nº 146. though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.Jeffrey Clark, Building on quicksand. Retrieved on July 24, 2007.

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory voting for all citizens aged 18 to 70.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 31. Peruvian general election, 2006 ended in a second round victory for presidential candidate Alan García of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (52.6% of valid votes) over Ollanta Humala of Union for Peru (47.4%). Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, Segunda Elección Presidencial 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007. Congress is currently composed of Union for Peru (45 seats), the Peruvian Aprista Party (35 seats), National Unity (Peru) (17 seats), Alliance for the Future (Peru) (13 seats), the Center Front (5 seats), Peru Possible (2 seats), and National Restoration (2 seats). Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, Elecciones Congresales 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.Ronald Bruce St John, The foreign policy of Peru, pp. 223–224. There is still an Chilean-Peruvian Maritime Dispute of 2006--2007 with Chile over maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean.BBC News, Peru–Chile border row escalates. Retrieved on May 16, 2007. Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations, where it is an elected member of the United Nations Security Council for the 2006–2007 term. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.Ministerio de Defensa, Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional, p. 90. The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence (Peru) and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.Ley Nº 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar, Articles Nº 29, 42 and 45.

Regions Peru is divided into Regional Governments of Peru and the Lima Province. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and a council, which serves for a four-year term.Ley Nº 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article Nº 11. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.Ley Nº 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article Nº 10. The province of Lima is administered by a city council.Ley Nº 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article Nº 66.

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Geography Peru covers 1,285,220 square kilometre (496,193 square miles), making it approximately two-thirds the size of Mexico. It neighbors Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean, dividing the country into three geographic regions. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.AndesHandbook, Huascarán. Retrieved on August 12, 2007. The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 16.

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the Andes and drain into one of three drainage basin. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 31. Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón River (Peru), the Içá, the Yavarí River, the Huallaga River, the Urubamba River, the Mantaro River, and the Amazon River.Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 21.

Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 24–25. In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 25–26. The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southermost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 26–27. Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has high biodiversity; 21,462 species of plants and animals had been reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemism.Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 50. The Peruvian government has established several list of national parks in Peru for their preservation.

Economy is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.Peru is a developing country with a 2004 Human Development Index score of 0.767.United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2006, p. 284. Retrieved on May 24, 2007. Its 2006 per capita income was US$3,374;International Monetary Fund, Countries. Retrieved on August 3, 2007. 51.6% of its total population is poor, including 19.2% that is extremely poor.2004 figure. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Condiciones de Vida en el Perú: Evolución 1997–2004, pp. 71–72 Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 4. Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 321.

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic interventionism, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of dependency theory.Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, pp. 318–319. Despite these adverse results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalization government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.John Sheahan, Searching for a better society, p. 157. Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Banco Central de Reserva, Producto bruto interno por sectores productivos 1951–2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.

tertiary sector of industry account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by secondary sector of industry (22.3%), primary sector of industry (15%), and taxes (9.7%).2006 figures. Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, p. 204. Retrieved on June 25, 2007. Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption. Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 15, 203. Retrieved on June 25, 2007. Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a Peru-United States Free Trade Agreement, which awaits ratification by the US Congress.Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement, April 4, 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007. Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.2006 figures. Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 60–61. Retrieved on July 3, 2007.

Demographics ancestryWith about 28 million inhabitants, Peru is the List of South American countries by population as of 2007.United Nations, , pp. 43–47. Retrieved on July 29, 2007 Its demographic growth declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, pp. 37–38, 40. As of 2005, 72.6% lived in urban areas and 27.4% in rural areas.Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, p. 45. Major cities include Lima, Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Chimbote, Cusco, and Huancayo, all of which reported more than 200,000 inhabitants in the Peru 1993 Census. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Migraciones Internas en el Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007

Peru is a multiethnic society formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries. Indigenous Peoples in Peru inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century; infectious diseases, famine, war and exploitation decreased their population from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620.Noble David Cook, Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620, p. 114. Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.Mario Vázquez, "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81. Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.Magnus Mörner, Race mixture in the history of Latin America, p. 131. Other immigrant groups include Arabs and Japanese.

Spanish, the first language of 80.3% of Peruvians age 5 and older in 1993, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most important of which is Quechua, spoken by 16.5% of the population in 1993. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 3% and 0.2% of Peruvians, respectively. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007 In the 1993 census, 89% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 6.7% as Evangelicalism, 2.6% as of other denominations, and 1.4% as non-religious; 0.2% did not specify any affiliation. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007 Literacy was estimated at 88.9% in 2005; this rate is lower in rural areas (76.1%) than in urban areas (94.8%). Portal Educativo Huascarán, El analfabetismo en cifras. Retrieved on May 15, 2007 Primary education and secondary education are compulsory education and free in public schools.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 17.

Culture painting, 18th centuryPeruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,Víctor Andrés Belaunde, Peruanidad, p. 472. though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups.

Peruvian arts date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made Architecture of Peru achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque art dominated in colonial times, though it was modified by native traditions.Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of colonial Latin America, pp. 72–74. During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of colonial Latin America, p. 263. Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.Edward Lucie-Smith, Latin American art of the 20th century, pp. 76–77, 145–146. Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been Eclecticism in art and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.Damián Bayón, "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980", pp. 425–428.

Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century, and colonial literary expression included chronicles and Christian literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.Gerald Martin, "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870", pp. 37–39. In the early 20th century, the Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegría,Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 151–152. José María Arguedas,Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 178–179. and César Vallejo.Jaime Concha, "Poetry, c. 1920–1950", pp. 250–253. During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 186–188.

is a citrus marinated seafood dish.Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Native American cuisine#Native American cuisine of South America and Spanish food with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.Tony Custer, The Art of Peruvian Cuisine, pp. 17–22. Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, humitas, and pachamanca. Because of the variety of climates within Peru, a wide range of plants and animals are available for cooking.Tony Custer, The Art of Peruvian Cuisine, pp. 25–38. Peruvian cuisine has recently received acclaim due to its diversity of ingredients and techniques.Embassy of Peru in the United States, The Peruvian Gastronomy. Retrieved on May 15, 2007

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish and African roots.Raúl Romero, "Andean Peru", p. 385–386. In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.Dale Olsen, Music of El Dorado, pp. 17–22. Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.Thomas Turino, "Charango", p. 340. African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the Cajon, a percussion instrument.Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 263–265. Peruvian folk dances include the marinera, tondero and huayno.Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 243–245, 261–263.

See also Notes Bibliography

Etymology

History

Government

Regions

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Culture

External links Government

General reference

Other



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{{Infobox Country or territory|native_name = República del Perú|conventional_long_name = Republic of Peru|common_name = Peru|image_coat = Escudo nacional del Perú.svg|image_flag = Flag of Peru.svg|image_map = LocationPeru.svg|national motto =|national_anthem = National Anthem of Peru(Spanish language)"We are free, may we always be so"|official_languages = Spanish language1|demonym = Peruvian|capital = Lima|leader_title1 = [List of Presidents of Peru|leader_name1 = Alan García|leader_title2 = List of Prime Ministers of Peru|leader_name2 = Jorge Del Castillo|sovereignty_note = from [Spain [1821-->|percent_water = 8.80|population_estimate = 28,674,757 |population_estimate_rank = 41st|population_estimate_year = July 2007|population_census = 27,219,266|population_census_year = 2005 |population_density_km2 = 22|population_density_sq_mi = 57 |currency_code = PEN|time_zone = PET|utc_offset = -5|time_zone_DST = not observed|utc_offset_DST =|cctld = .pe, [Aymara language and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they are predominant.-->

Peru (, , ), officially the Republic of Peru (, ), is a country in western South America. It is bordered on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on the east by Brazil, on the southeast by Bolivia, on the south by Chile, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, and to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian. The Spanish Empire conquered the country in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving Independence of Peru in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing.

Peru is a presidential system representative democracy republic divided into Administrative divisions of Peru. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a medium Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 50%. Its main economic activities include agriculture, fishing, mining, and manufacturing of products such as textiles.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 28 million, is multiethnic society, including Indigenous Peoples in Peru, Europeans, Black people and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua and other Indigenous languages of the Americas. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Etymology The word Peru is derived from Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 83. When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 84. Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 86. The Spanish Empire gave the name legal status with the 1529 Francisco Pizarro#Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 87. Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after Peruvian War of Independence.

History The earliest evidence of human presence in Peruvian territory has been dated to approximately 11,000 years Common Era.Tom Dillehay et al, "The first settlers", p. 20. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3000 and 1800 BCE.Jonathan Haas et al, "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru", p. 1021. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Chavín culture, Paracas culture, Mochica Culture, Nazca culture, Huari Culture, and Chimú culture. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.Terence D'Altroy, The Incas, pp. 2–3. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and Terrace (agriculture); camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity (cultural anthropology) and redistribution (cultural anthropology) because these societies had no notion of market or money.Enrique Mayer, The articulated peasant, pp. 47–68.

, the "Lost City of the Incas"In 1532, a group of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire Inca Emperor Atahualpa and established Spanish rule. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.Recopilación de leyes de los Reynos de las Indias, vol. II, pp. 12–13. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian Mita (Inca) as its primary workforce.Peter Bakewell, Miners of the Red Mountain, p. 181. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.Margarita Suárez, Desafíos transatlánticos, pp. 252–253. However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.Kenneth Andrien, Crisis and decline, pp. 200–202. In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty of Peru.Mark Burkholder, From impotence to authority, pp. 83–87. The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were defeated.Scarlett O'Phelan, Rebellions and revolts in eighteenth century Peru and Upper Peru, p. 276.

in 1821.In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by South American wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite hesitated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence of Peru was achieved only after the military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.Timothy Anna, The fall of the royal government in Peru, pp. 237–238. During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.Charles Walker, Smoldering ashes, pp. 124–125. National identity was forged during this period, as Simón Bolívar projects for a Congress of Panama foundered and a Peru-Bolivian Confederation proved ephemeral.Paul Gootenberg, Between silver and guano, p. 12. Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla due to increased state revenues from guano exports.Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, pp. 5–6. However, by the 1870s, these resources had been squandered, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.Paul Gootenberg, Imagining development, p. 9.

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, losing the provinces of Arica Province and Tarapacá Region in the treaties of Treaty of Ancón and Treaty of Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.Ulrich Mücke, Political culture in nineteenth-century Peru, pp. 193–194. The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).Peter Klarén, Peru, pp. 262–276. The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.David Palmer, Peru: the authoritarian tradition, p. 93.

, a decisive battle during the War of the Pacific.In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaúnde Terry. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development but failed to gain widespread support.George Philip, The rise and fall of the Peruvian military radicals, pp. 163–165. In 1975, Velasco was forcefully replaced as president by General Francisco Morales Bermúdez, who paralyzed reforms and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.Daniel Schydlowsky and Juan Julio Wicht, "Anatomy of an economic failure", pp. 106–107. During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and Internal conflict in Peru.Peter Klarén, Peru, pp. 406–407. Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover, however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial Peruvian general election, 2000.BBC News, Fujimori: Decline and fall. Retrieved on July 21, 2007. Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth; the current president is Alan García.The Economist, Peru. Retrieved on July 18, 2007.

Government , official residence of the President.Peru is a presidential system representative democracy republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and head of government; he or she is elected for five years and may not immediately be re-elected.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 112. The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 122. There is a unicameralism Congress with 120 members elected for a five-year term.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 90. Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.Constitución Política del Perú, Articles Nº 107–108. The judiciary is nominally independent,Constitución Política del Perú, Articles Nº 146. though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.Jeffrey Clark, Building on quicksand. Retrieved on July 24, 2007.

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory voting for all citizens aged 18 to 70.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 31. Peruvian general election, 2006 ended in a second round victory for presidential candidate Alan García of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (52.6% of valid votes) over Ollanta Humala of Union for Peru (47.4%). Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, Segunda Elección Presidencial 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007. Congress is currently composed of Union for Peru (45 seats), the Peruvian Aprista Party (35 seats), National Unity (Peru) (17 seats), Alliance for the Future (Peru) (13 seats), the Center Front (5 seats), Peru Possible (2 seats), and National Restoration (2 seats). Oficina Nacional de Procesos Electorales, Elecciones Congresales 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.Ronald Bruce St John, The foreign policy of Peru, pp. 223–224. There is still an Chilean-Peruvian Maritime Dispute of 2006--2007 with Chile over maritime limits in the Pacific Ocean.BBC News, Peru–Chile border row escalates. Retrieved on May 16, 2007. Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations, where it is an elected member of the United Nations Security Council for the 2006–2007 term. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.Ministerio de Defensa, Libro Blanco de la Defensa Nacional, p. 90. The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defence (Peru) and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.Ley Nº 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar, Articles Nº 29, 42 and 45.

Regions Peru is divided into Regional Governments of Peru and the Lima Province. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and a council, which serves for a four-year term.Ley Nº 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article Nº 11. These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.Ley Nº 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article Nº 10. The province of Lima is administered by a city council.Ley Nº 27867, Ley Orgánica de Gobiernos Regionales, Article Nº 66.

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Province:

Geography Peru covers 1,285,220 square kilometre (496,193 square miles), making it approximately two-thirds the size of Mexico. It neighbors Ecuador and Colombia to the north, Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west.

The Andes mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean, dividing the country into three geographic regions. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra (highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.AndesHandbook, Huascarán. Retrieved on August 12, 2007. The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by the Amazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60% of the country's area is located within this region.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 16.

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the Andes and drain into one of three drainage basin. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, p. 31. Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón River (Peru), the Içá, the Yavarí River, the Huallaga River, the Urubamba River, the Mantaro River, and the Amazon River.Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 21.

Peru, unlike other equatorial countries, does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 24–25. In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 25–26. The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southermost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.Instituto de Estudios Histórico–Marítimos del Perú, El Perú y sus recursos: Atlas geográfico y económico, pp. 26–27. Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has high biodiversity; 21,462 species of plants and animals had been reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemism.Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Compendio Estadístico 2005, p. 50. The Peruvian government has established several list of national parks in Peru for their preservation.

Economy is the main outlet for Peruvian exports.Peru is a developing country with a 2004 Human Development Index score of 0.767.United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2006, p. 284. Retrieved on May 24, 2007. Its 2006 per capita income was US$3,374;International Monetary Fund, Countries. Retrieved on August 3, 2007. 51.6% of its total population is poor, including 19.2% that is extremely poor.2004 figure. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Condiciones de Vida en el Perú: Evolución 1997–2004, pp. 71–72 Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 4. Although exports have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, p. 321.

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvarado introduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of an economic interventionism, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of dependency theory.Rosemary Thorp and Geoffrey Bertram, Peru 1890–1977, pp. 318–319. Despite these adverse results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalization government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.John Sheahan, Searching for a better society, p. 157. Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis. Banco Central de Reserva, Producto bruto interno por sectores productivos 1951–2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007.

tertiary sector of industry account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by secondary sector of industry (22.3%), primary sector of industry (15%), and taxes (9.7%).2006 figures. Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, p. 204. Retrieved on June 25, 2007. Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption. Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 15, 203. Retrieved on June 25, 2007. Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a Peru-United States Free Trade Agreement, which awaits ratification by the US Congress.Office of the U.S. Trade Representative, United States and Peru Sign Trade Promotion Agreement, April 4, 2006. Retrieved on May 15, 2007. Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.2006 figures. Banco Central de Reserva, Memoria 2006, pp. 60–61. Retrieved on July 3, 2007.

Demographics ancestryWith about 28 million inhabitants, Peru is the List of South American countries by population as of 2007.United Nations, , pp. 43–47. Retrieved on July 29, 2007 Its demographic growth declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, pp. 37–38, 40. As of 2005, 72.6% lived in urban areas and 27.4% in rural areas.Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perú: Estimaciones y Proyecciones de Población, 1950–2050, p. 45. Major cities include Lima, Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Chimbote, Cusco, and Huancayo, all of which reported more than 200,000 inhabitants in the Peru 1993 Census. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Migraciones Internas en el Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007

Peru is a multiethnic society formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries. Indigenous Peoples in Peru inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in the 16th century; infectious diseases, famine, war and exploitation decreased their population from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620.Noble David Cook, Demographic collapse: Indian Peru, 1520–1620, p. 114. Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.Mario Vázquez, "Immigration and mestizaje in nineteenth-century Peru", pp. 79–81. Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.Magnus Mörner, Race mixture in the history of Latin America, p. 131. Other immigrant groups include Arabs and Japanese.

Spanish, the first language of 80.3% of Peruvians age 5 and older in 1993, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most important of which is Quechua, spoken by 16.5% of the population in 1993. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 3% and 0.2% of Peruvians, respectively. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007 In the 1993 census, 89% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 6.7% as Evangelicalism, 2.6% as of other denominations, and 1.4% as non-religious; 0.2% did not specify any affiliation. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática, Perfil sociodemográfico del Perú. Retrieved on May 15, 2007 Literacy was estimated at 88.9% in 2005; this rate is lower in rural areas (76.1%) than in urban areas (94.8%). Portal Educativo Huascarán, El analfabetismo en cifras. Retrieved on May 15, 2007 Primary education and secondary education are compulsory education and free in public schools.Constitución Política del Perú, Article Nº 17.

Culture painting, 18th centuryPeruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,Víctor Andrés Belaunde, Peruanidad, p. 472. though it has also been influenced by various African, Asian, and European ethnic groups.

Peruvian arts date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made Architecture of Peru achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque art dominated in colonial times, though it was modified by native traditions.Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of colonial Latin America, pp. 72–74. During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.Gauvin Alexander Bailey, Art of colonial Latin America, p. 263. Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.Edward Lucie-Smith, Latin American art of the 20th century, pp. 76–77, 145–146. Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been Eclecticism in art and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.Damián Bayón, "Art, c. 1920–c. 1980", pp. 425–428.

Peruvian literature has its roots in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century, and colonial literary expression included chronicles and Christian literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.Gerald Martin, "Literature, music and the visual arts, c. 1820–1870", pp. 37–39. In the early 20th century, the Indigenismo movement produced such writers as Ciro Alegría,Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 151–152. José María Arguedas,Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 178–179. and César Vallejo.Jaime Concha, "Poetry, c. 1920–1950", pp. 250–253. During the second half of the century, Peruvian literature became more widely known because of authors such as Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.Gerald Martin, "Narrative since c. 1920", pp. 186–188.

is a citrus marinated seafood dish.Peruvian cuisine is a blend of Native American cuisine#Native American cuisine of South America and Spanish food with strong influences from African, Arab, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese cooking.Tony Custer, The Art of Peruvian Cuisine, pp. 17–22. Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, humitas, and pachamanca. Because of the variety of climates within Peru, a wide range of plants and animals are available for cooking.Tony Custer, The Art of Peruvian Cuisine, pp. 25–38. Peruvian cuisine has recently received acclaim due to its diversity of ingredients and techniques.Embassy of Peru in the United States, The Peruvian Gastronomy. Retrieved on May 15, 2007

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish and African roots.Raúl Romero, "Andean Peru", p. 385–386. In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely from region to region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.Dale Olsen, Music of El Dorado, pp. 17–22. Spanish conquest brought the introduction of new instruments such as the guitar and the harp, as well as the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.Thomas Turino, "Charango", p. 340. African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the Cajon, a percussion instrument.Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 263–265. Peruvian folk dances include the marinera, tondero and huayno.Raúl Romero, "La música tradicional y popular", pp. 243–245, 261–263.

See also Notes Bibliography

Etymology

History

Government

Regions

Geography

Economy

Demographics

Culture

External links Government

General reference

Other



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